An Overview of the Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Conservation Actions in the Western Ghats, India

The Western Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot, is particularly rich in floral and faunal wealth and endemism, covering an area of 164,280 km 2 in a stretch of 1600 kilometres. This majestic mountain chain rises from the coastal region at its western borders, reaching up to a height of 2695 m and then merging with the Deccan plateau to the east at an altitude of 500–600 m. This mountain range is home to ca. 7402 species of flowering plants, of which more than 1270 are endemic. Another ca. 1814 species of non-flowering plants, ca. 139 mammals, ca. 179 amphibia, ca. 508 bird, ca. 6000 insects and ca. 290 freshwater fish species are known; with even more to be discovered. Even though the area covers less than 5% of India’s total land area, 30% of all flora and fauna are found here. As the case with a high degree of endemism in flora, 50% of amphibians and 67% of fish species in India are endemic to this region. The Western Ghats region is the source of about 13 major river systems. It encompasses a diversity of ecosystems and accomplishes essential hydrological and watershed functions. However, due to the increasing anthropogenic pressure, as in any other region, regional and global drivers of biodiversity change and ecosystem loss are prevalent in this region and increasing. Assorted efforts are in place to conserve the biodiversity here; however, only an integrated and ecosystem-based approach, at the landscape level, can achieve conservation of the rich bioresources and sustainable development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Buy Now

eBook EUR 149.79 Price includes VAT (France)

Softcover Book EUR 189.89 Price includes VAT (France)

Hardcover Book EUR 189.89 Price includes VAT (France)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Similar content being viewed by others

Hotspots: An Introduction and Role in Conservation

Conservation of Biodiversity in India: Current Status and Future Strategies

An overview of biodiversity and conservation status of steppes of the Anatolian Biogeographical Region

References

• Abood SA, Lee JSH, Burivalova Z, Garcia-Ulloa J, Koh LP (2015) Relative contributions of the logging, fiber, oil palm, and mining industries to forest loss in Indonesia. Conserv Lett 8:58–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12103ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Abson DJ et al (2014) Ecosystem services as a boundary object for sustainability. Ecol Econ 103:29–37 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Allendorf TD (2007) Residents' attitudes toward three protected areas in southwestern Nepal. Biol Conserv 16:2087–2102 Google Scholar
• Anitha V, Muraleedharan PK (2006) Economic valuation of ecotourism development of a recreational site in the natural forests of southern Western Ghats. Kerala Forest Res Inst, Peechi, Kerala, India Google Scholar
• Anthwal A, Gupta N, Sharma A, Anthwal S, Kim KH (2010) Conserving biodiversity through traditional beliefs in sacred groves in Uttarakhand Himalaya. India Resources, Conservation and Recycling 54:962–971 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Appfel-Marglin F, Mishra PC (1993) Sacred groves: regenerating the body, the land and the community. In: Sachs W (ed) Global ecology: a new arena of political conflict. Zed Books, London, pp 22–32 Google Scholar
• Athira K, Reddy CS, Saranya KRL, Joseph S, Jaishanker R (2017) Habitat monitoring and conservation prioritisation of protected areas in Western Ghats, Kerala. Ind Environ Monitor Assessment 189:295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5998-zArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• ATREE, CEPF (2013) Five year assessment of the CEPF investment in the western ghats region of the western ghats and Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore and Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
• Avise JC, Hubbell SP, Ayala FJ (2008) In the light of evolution II: biodiversity and extinction. PNAS 105:11453–11457 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Ayensu E et al (1999) International ecosystem assessment. Science 286:685–686 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Balaji S (2003) Biodiversity concerns in joint forest management. In: National Workshop on technological innovations and research advancements for application in JFM. Ind Council Forestry Res Edu, DehraDun, pp 151–152 Google Scholar
• Barlow J, Gardner TA, Lees AC, Parry L, Peres CA (2012) How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation. Biol Conserv 151:45–49 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bhagwat SA, Kushalappa CG, Williams PH, Brown ND (2005a) A landscape approach to biodiversity conservation of sacred groves in the western ghats of India. Conserv Biol 19:1853–1862. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00248.xArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bhagwat SA, Kushalappa CG, Williams PH, Brown ND (2005b) The role of informal protected areas in maintaining biodiversity in the western ghats of India. Ecol Soc:10 Google Scholar
• Bhakat RK (1990) Tribal Ethics of Forest Conservation Yojana 34:23–25 Google Scholar
• Bhatia H, Sharma YP, Manhas RK, Kumar K (2015) Traditional Phytoremedies for the treatment of menstrual disorders in district Udhampur, J&K, India. J Ethnopharmacol 160:202–210 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bowen-Jones E, Entwistle A (2002) Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts. Oryx 36:189–195 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Boyd JM (1984) The role of religion in conservation. Environmentalist 4:40–44 Google Scholar
• Brandt JS, Butsic V, Schwab B, Kuemmerle T, Radeloff VC (2015) The relative effectiveness of protected areas, a logging ban, and sacred areas for old-growth forest protection in Southwest China. Biol Conserv 181:1–8 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Buck LE, Milder JC, Gavin TA, Mukherjee I (2006) Understanding ecoagriculture: a framework for measuring landscape performance. Cornell University, New York and Ecoagriculture Partners, Washington DC, USA Google Scholar
• Butler RA, Laurance WF (2008) New strategies for conserving tropical forests. Trends Ecol Evol 23:469–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.006ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Campanile D, Nambiar C, Bishop P, Widdowson M, Brown R (2008) Sedimentation record in the Konkan-Kerala Basin: implications for the evolution of the Western Ghats and the Western Indian passive margin. Basin Res 20:3–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-117.2007.00341.xArticleGoogle Scholar
• Caro TM, O'Doherty G (1999) On the use of surrogate species in conservation biology. Conserv Biol 13:805–814 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Champion HG, Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Delhi Google Scholar
• Chandrakanth MG, Bhat MG, Accava MS (2004) Socioeconomic changes and sacred groves in South India: protecting a community-based resource management institution natural resource. Forum 28:102–111 Google Scholar
• Chandrakanth MG, Nagaraja MG (1997) Existence value of Kodagu sacred groves: implications for policy. In: Agarwal A (ed) The challenge of the balance: environmental economics in India. Centre Sci Environ, New Delhi, pp 217–224 Google Scholar
• Chandran MDS, Hughes JD (1997) The sacred groves of South India: ecology, traditional communities and religious change. Social Compass 44:413–428 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Chandran MDS, Rao GR, Gururaja KV, Ramachandra TV (2010) Ecology of the swampy relic forests of Kathalekan from Central Western Ghats, India. Biorem Biodiv Bioavail 4:54–68 Google Scholar
• Chandrashekhara UM, Sankar S (1998) Ecology and Management of Sacred Groves in Kerala, India. Forest Ecol Manag 112:165–177 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Chaudhary RP et al (2015a) Kangchenjunga landscape Nepal: from conservation and development perspectives. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), government of Nepal, research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST). Tribhuvan University and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Google Scholar
• Chaudhary S, McGregor A, Houston D, Chettri N (2015b) The evolution of ecosystem services: a time series and discourse-centered analysis. Environ Sci Pol 54:25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.04.025ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Corfield RI, Carmichael S, Bennet J, Akhter S, Fatimi M, Carig T (2010) Variability in the crustal structure of the west Indian continental margin in the northern Arabian Sea. Pet Geosci 16:257–265 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Costanza R, . et al. (1997) The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital Nature 387:253–260 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Dafni A, Levy S, Lev E (2005) The ethnobotany of Christ's thorn jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi) in Israel. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 1:1–11 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Dahanukar N, Raghavan R (2013) Freshwater fishes of the Western Ghats: checklist v1.0 August 2013 Min 01:6–16 Google Scholar
• Dahanukar N, Raut R, Bhat A (2004) Distribution, endemism and threat status of freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India. J Biogeogr 31:123–136. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0305-0270.2003.01016.xArticleGoogle Scholar
• Daily GC, Matson PA (2008) Ecosystem services: from theory to implementation. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105:9455–9456 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Daniels RJR (1992) Geographical distribution patterns of amphibians in the Western Ghats, India. J Biogeog 19:521–529 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Daniels RJR, Hegde M, Joshi NV, Gadgil M (1991) Assigning conservation value: a case study from India. Conserv Biol 5:464–475 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Das A, Krishnaswamy J, Bawa KS, Kiran MC, Srinivas V, Kumar NS, Karanth KU (2006) Prioritisation of conservation areas in the Western Ghats, India. Biol Conserv 133:16–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.05.023ArticleGoogle Scholar
• de Groot RS, Wilson MA, Boumans RMJ (2002) A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol Econ 41:393–408 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Díaz S et al. (2015) The IPBES conceptual framework–connecting nature and people Curr Opinion Environ Sustainability 14:1-16 doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2014.11.002
• Dietz JM, Dietz LA, Nagagata EY (1994) The effective use of flagship species for conservation of biodiversity: the example of lion tamarins in Brazil. In: Olney PJS, Mace GM, Feistner ATC (eds) Creative conservation: interactive management of wild and captive animals. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 32–49 ChapterGoogle Scholar
• Dikshit KR (2001) The Western Ghats: a geomorphic overview. Memoir Geological Society of India 47:159–183 Google Scholar
• Dubey CP, Tiwari VM (2018) Gravity anomalies and crustal thickness variations over the Western Ghats. J Geol Soc India 92:517–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-1059-7ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Dudley N et al. (2010) Natural solutions: protected areas helping people cope with climate change. IUCN/WCPA “Parks for Life” Coordination Office, Google Scholar
• Ellis EC, Ramankutty N (2008) Putting people in the map: anthropogenic biomes of the world. Front Ecol Environ 6:439–447. https://doi.org/10.1890/070062ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Entwistle AC, Stephenson PJ (2000) Small mammals and the conservation agenda. In: Entwistle A, Dunston N (eds) Priorities for the conservation of mammalian diversity: has the panda had its day? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 119–139 Google Scholar
• Gadgil M, Berkes F, Folke C (1993) Indigenous knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Ambio 22:151–156 Google Scholar
• Gadgil M, Meher-Homji VM (1986) Localities of great significance to conservation of India's biological diversity Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences November: 165–180 Google Scholar
• Gangadharan A, Vaidyanathan S, Ram S (2011) Identifying critical areas for a landscape–level wildlife corridor in the southern Western Ghats. Foundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning (FERAL), Pondicherry Google Scholar
• Gera M, Yadav AKR, Bisht NS, Mohan G (2008) Valuation of recreational benefits from the valley of flowers. National Park Indian For 134:26–35 Google Scholar
• Ginsberg JR (2001) Flagship panda Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16:56–57 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• GLF (n.d.) What is the landscape approach? Global Landscapes Forum. https://www.globallandscapesforum.org/about/what-is-the-landscape-approach/. Accessed 10 September 2020
• Go'mez-Baggethun E, de Groot R, Lomas PL, Montes C (2010) The history of ecosystem services in economic theory and practice: from early notions to markets and payment schemes. Ecol Econ 69:1209–1218 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Gonzalez P et al (2005) Forest and woodland systems. In: Hassan R, Scholes R, Ash N (eds) Ecosystems and human wellbeing: current state and trends, vol 1. Island Press, Washington, pp 68–77 Google Scholar
• Gowd TN, Rao SVS, Gaur VK (1992) Tectonic stress-field in the Indian subcontinent. J Geophys Res 97:11879–11888 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Gowda B (2006) Sacred plants. Kalpataru Research Academy, Bangalore Google Scholar
• Greene HW, Mcdiarmid RW (2005) Wallace and Savage: heroes, theories and venomous snake mimicry, ecology and evolution in the tropics, a herpetological perspective. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Google Scholar
• Gunderson LH, Cosens B, Garmestani AS (2016) Adaptive governance of riverine and wetland ecosystem goods and services. J Environ Manag 183:353–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.05.024ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Gunnell Y (2001) Dynamics and kinematics of rifting and uplift at the western continental margin of India, insights from geophysics and numerical models. In: Gunnell Y, Radhakrishna BP (eds) Sahyadri: the great escarpment of the Indian subcontinent, vol 47. Mem Geol Soc, India, pp 475–496 Google Scholar
• Gunnell Y, Fleitout L (2000) Morphotectonic evolution of the Western Ghats, India. In: Summerfield MA (ed) Geomorphology and global tectonics. Wiley, pp 321–338 Google Scholar
• Gunnell Y, Radhakrishna BP (2001) Sahyadri, the great escarpment of the Indian subcontinent, vol 47. Mem. Geol. Soc, India Google Scholar
• Gupta S, Kanna N, Kumar S, Sivaram K (2018) Crustal thickness and composition variation along the Western Ghats of India through Teleseismic receiver function analysis. J Geol Soc India 92:523–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-1061-0ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Haines-Young R, Potschi M (2009) Methodologies for defining and assessing ecosystem services. University of Nottingham, Nottingham Google Scholar
• Hansen AJ, DeFries R (2007) Ecological mechanisms linking protected areas to surrounding lands. Ecol Appl 17:974–988. https://doi.org/10.1890/05-1098ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Harvey CA et al (2014) Climate-smart landscapes: opportunities and challenges for integrating adaptation and mitigation in tropical agriculture. Conserv Lett 7:77–90 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Hasnain N (1992) Tribal India. Palaka Prakashan, Delhi Google Scholar
• Heinen JT, Shrivastava RJ (2009) An analysis of conservation attitudes and awareness around Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India: implications for conservation and development. Population Environ 30:261–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-009-0086-0ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Hembram PC (1983) Sari Sarna (Santhal religion). Mittal Publications, Delhi Google Scholar
• Hiremath AJ, Sundaram B (2005) The fire-lantana cycle hypothesis in Indian forests. Conserv Soc 3:26–42 Google Scholar
• Hofmann C, Feraud G, Coutillot V (2000) 40Ar/39Ar dating of mineral separates and whole rocks from the Western Ghats lava pile: further constrains on duration and age of the Deccan traps. Earth Planet Sci Lett 180:13–27 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Hooper PR (1990) The timing of crustal extension and the eruption of continental flood basalts. Nature 345:246–249 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Infield M, Namara A (2001) Community attitudes and behaviour towards conservation: an assessment of a community conservation programme around Lake Mburo National Park. Uganda Oryx 35:48–60 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Jain SK, Kapoor S (2007) Divine botany-universal and useful but under explored traditions Indian. J Trad Knowl 6:534–539 Google Scholar
• Joshi J, Karanth P (2013) Did southern Western Ghats of peninsular India serve as refugia for its endemic biota during the cretaceous volcanism? Ecol Evol 3:3275–3282. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.603ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kala CP (2005a) Current status of medicinal plants used by traditional Vaidyas in Uttaranchal state of India. Ethnobot Res Appl 3:267–278 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kala CP (2005b) Indigenous uses, population density and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol 19:368–378 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kala CP (2006) Ethnobotany and ethnoconservation of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa. Indian J Tradit Knowl 5:537–540 Google Scholar
• Kala CP (2011) Traditional ecological knowledge, sacred groves and conservation of biodiversity in the Pachmarhi biosphere Reserve of India. J Environ Prot 2:967–973 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kalam MA (1996) Sacred groves in Kodagu District of Karnataka (South India): a socio-historical study, vol 21. Institut Francais de Pondicherry, Pondicherry Google Scholar
• Kamla R, Gallhofer S, Haslam J (2006) Islam, nature and accounting: Islamic principles and the notion of accounting for the environment. Account Forum 30:245–265 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Karanth KU (1986) Status of wildlife and habitat conservation in Karnataka. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 83:166–179 Google Scholar
• Karanth KU (1992) Conservation prospects for lion-tailed macaques in Karnataka, India. Zoo Biol 11:33–41 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kremen C et al (2000) Economic incentives for rain forest conservation across scales. Science 288:1828–1832 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Krishnadas M, Agarwala M, Sridhara S, Eastwood E (2018) Parks protect forest cover in a tropical biodiversity hotspot, but high human population densities can limit success. Biol Conserv 223:147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.04.034ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kushalappa CG, Bhagwat S (2001) Sacred groves: biodiversity, threats and conservation. In: Shanker UR, Ganeshaiah KN, Bawa KS (eds) Forest genetic resources: status, threats, and conservation strategies. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, pp 21–29 Google Scholar
• Lal M, Singh R (2000) Carbon sequestration potential of Indian forests. Environ Monit Assess 60:315–327 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Lawton JH, May RM (1996) Extinction rates. Oxford University Press Google Scholar
• Leader-Williams N, Dublin HT (2000) Charismatic megafauna as ‘flagship species’. In: Entwistle A, Dunston N (eds) Priorities for the conservation of mammalian diversity: has the panda had its day? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 53–81 Google Scholar
• Macura B, Zorondo-Rodríguez F, Grau-Satorras M, Demps K, Laval M, Garcia CA, Reyes-García V (2011) Local community attitudes toward forests outside protected areas in india. Impact of legal awareness, trust, and participation. Ecol Soc 16 Google Scholar
• Madhyastha NA, Rajendra, Mavinkurve G, Shanbhag SP (2015) Land Snails of Western Ghats https://archive.is/20090717093156/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapter9.htm#selection-213.1-213.30. Accessed 09 September 2020
• Maikhuri RK, Nautiyal S, Rao KS, Saxena KG (1998) Role of medicinal plants in the traditional health care system: a case study from Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, Himalaya. Curr Sci 75:152–157 Google Scholar
• Malik ZA, Bhat JA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB (2015) Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol 172:133–144 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Malviya M, Srivastav A, Nigam P, Tyagi PC (2011) Indian National Studbook of Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johnii). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi Google Scholar
• Manoharan TR (1996) Economics of protected areas: a case study of periyar tiger reserve. Forest Research Institute Google Scholar
• Margono BA, Potapov PV, Turubanova S, Stolle F, Hansen MC (2014) Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000–2012. Nat Clim Chang 4:730–735. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2277ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Marten G (2001) Human ecology–basic concepts for sustainable development. Easthscan Publications, London Google Scholar
• Mathew G, Binoy CF (2015) An overview of insect diversity of Western Ghats with special reference to Kerala State. https://archive.is/20090316112850/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapter3.htm. Accessed 09 September 2020
• Mathew G, Mahesh Kumar M (2015) State of the art knowledge on the Butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India. https://archive.is/20090108105816/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapter6.htm#selection-213.1-217.36. Accessed 09 September 2020
• MEA (2003) Ecosystems and human Well-being: a framework for assessment (millennium ecosystem assessment). Island Press, Washington, DC Google Scholar
• MEA (2005) Ecosystems and human Well-being: synthesis (millennium ecosystem assessment). Island Press, Washington, DC Google Scholar
• Mehta JN, Heinen JT (2001) Does community-based conservation shape favorable attitudes among locals? An empirical study from Nepal. Environ Manag 28:165–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002670010215ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Milder JC, Buck LE, DeClerck FAJ, Scherr SJ (2010) Landscape approaches to achieving food production, natural resource conservation, and the Millenium development goals. In: Ingram JC, DeClerck FAJ, Rumbaitis Del Rio C (eds) Integrating ecology and poverty reduction, vol 77–108. Springer, New York Google Scholar
• Milder JC, Hart AK, Dobie P, Minai J, Zaleski C (2014) Integrated landscape initiatives for african agriculture, development, and conservation: a region-wide assessment. World Dev 54:68–80 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Miller JR (2005) Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. Trends Ecol Evol 20:430–434 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Mittermeier RA, Turner WR, Larsen FW, Brooks TM, Gascon C (2011) Global biodiversity conservation: the critical role of hotspots. In: Zachos FE, Habel JC (eds) Biodiversity hotspots: distribution and protection of conservation priority areas. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20992-5_1ChapterGoogle Scholar
• MoEF (2009) Serial nomination of the Western Ghats of India: its natural heritage For inscription on the world natural heritage list. India Google Scholar
• Mohandas TV, Remadevi OK (2011) A study on tourist visitations in protected areas of central Western Ghats in Karnataka Indian For 137:403–410 Google Scholar
• Molur M, Smith KG, Daniel BA, Darwall WRT (2011) The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in the Western Ghats, India. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species–Regional Assessment Google Scholar
• Moore A, Blenkinsop T, Cotterill F (2009) Southern African topography and erosion history: plumes or plate tectonics? Terra Nova 21:310–315 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Mountain-Partnership (2014) Why mountains matter for forests and biodiversity Google Scholar
• Mukerji AK (2006) Evolution of good governance through forest policy reform in India. In: Bhattacharya P, Kandya AK, Krishna Kumar KN (eds) JFM at crossroads: future strategy and action programme for institutionalising community forestry. Workshop PrePrints, pp 17–24 Google Scholar
• Murthy IK, Bhat PR, Ravindranath NH, Sukumar R (2005) Financial valuation of non-timber forest product flows in Uttara Kannada district, Western Ghats, Karnataka. Curr Sci 88:1573–1579 Google Scholar
• Murthy IK et al (2004) The ecological impact of joint forest management in Karnataka. In: Ravindranath NH, Sudha P (eds) Joint Forest Management in India: spread, performance and impact. Universities Press (India) Private Limited, Hyderabad, India, pp 220–248 Google Scholar
• Myers OE Jr, Saunders CD (2002) Animals as links toward developing caring relationships with the natural world. In: Kahn PH Jr, Kellert SR (eds) Children and nature: psychological, sociocultural and evolutionary investigations. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 155–178 Google Scholar
• Myers N (1990) The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis. Environmentalist 10:243–256 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, Fonseca GABD, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858. https://doi.org/10.1038/35002501ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Nag OS (2017) The Biodiversity Hotspot of the Western Ghats, India. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-biodiversity-hotspot-of-the-western-ghats-india.html. Accessed 08 September 2020
• Nagendra H (2001) Incorporating landscape transformation into local conservation prioritisation: a case study in the Western Ghats. India Biodiver Conserv 10:353–365. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016619325970ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Naidoo R et al (2008) Global mapping of ecosystem services and conservation priorities. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105:9495. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707823105ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Nair SC (1991) The southern Western Ghats; a biodiversity conservation plan studies in Ecology & Sustainable Development, vol 4. Indian National Trust for Art & Cultural Heritage INTACH, New Delhi Google Scholar
• Nasi R, Wunder S, Campos AJJ (2002) Forest ecosystem services: can they pay our way out of deforestation? CIFOR for the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), Bogor, Indonesia Google Scholar
• Nautiyal S, Rao KS, Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL, Saxena KG (2000) Traditional knowledge related to medicinal and aromatic plants in tribal societies in a part of Himalaya. J Med Aromatic Plant Sci Biotechnol 23:528–541 Google Scholar
• Nayar TS, Rasiya Beegam A, Sibi M (2014) Flowering plants of the Western Ghats. Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, India, India Google Scholar
• Negi VS, Pathak R, Sekar KC, Rawal RS, Bhatt ID, Nandi SK, Dhyani PP (2018) Traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation: a case study from Byans Valley in Kailash sacred landscape. India J Environ Plan Manag 61:1722–1743. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2017.1371006ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Newcome J, Provins A, Johns H, Ozdemiroglu E, Ghazoul J, Burgess D, Turner K (2005) The economic, social and ecological value of ecosystem services: a literature review. Economics for the Environment Consultancy, London Google Scholar
• Nielsen SB et al (2010) The ICE hypothesis stands: How the dogma of late Cenozoic tectonic up-lift can no longer be sustained in the light of data and physical laws. J Geodyn 50:102–111 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Nielsen SB et al (2009) The evolution of western Scandinavian topography: a review of Neogene uplift versus the ICE (isostasy–climate–erosion) hypothesis. J Geodyn 47:72–95 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• OECD (2002) Handbook of biodiversity valuation: a guide for policy makers. OECD, Paris, France BookGoogle Scholar
• Ormsby A, Ismail SA (2015) Cultural and ecological insights into sacred groves: managing timber resources for improved grove conservation forests. Trees and Livelihoods 24:244–258 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ormsby A, Kaplin BA (2005) A framework for understanding community resident perceptions of Masoala national park. Madagascar Environ Conserv 32:156–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892905002146ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ormsby AA (2013) Analysis of local attitudes toward the sacred groves of Meghalaya and Karnataka. India Conserv Soc 11:187–197 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ormsby AA, Bhagwat SA (2010) Sacred forests of India: a strong tradition of community-based natural resource management. Environ Conserv 37:320–326 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Panchamukhi PR, Trivedi P, Debi S, Kulkarni AK, Sharma P (2008) Natural resource accounting in Karnataka: a study on land and forestry sector (excluding mining). Centre for Multi-Disciplinary Development Research, Dharwad Google Scholar
• Pande S (n.d.) Avian diversity of western ghats Google Scholar
• Pandurangan AG, Rai RK (2012) Agasthyamala biosphere reserve–Western Ghats, India. In: LMS P, Rawal RS (eds) Compendium on Indian biosphere reserves progression during two decades of conservation. GBPIHED & MoEF, New Delhi, pp 143–151 Google Scholar
• Pandurangan AG, Suiting WS, Rai RK (2012) Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve–Western Ghats, India. In: Palni LMS, Rawal RS (eds) Compendium on Indian biosphere reserves progression during two decades of conservation. GBPIHED & MoEF, New Delhi, pp 22–31 Google Scholar
• Pascal JP (1988) Wet Evergreen forests of the Western Ghats of India. Institut Francais de Pondichery, India Google Scholar
• Pathak N (2009) Community conserved areas in India: a directory. Kalpavriksh Publishers, Delhi Google Scholar
• Patro PK, Raju K, Sarma SVS (2018) Some insights into the lithospheric electrical structure in the Western Ghat region from Magnetotelluric studies. J Geol Soc India 92:529–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-1062-zArticleGoogle Scholar
• Pfund JL (2010) Landscape-scale research for conservation and development in the tropics: fighting persisting challenges. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2:117–126 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Prasad SN, Vijayan L, Balachandran S, Ramachandran VS, Verghese CPA (1998) Conservation planning for the Western Ghats of Kerala: I. A GIS approach for location of biodiversity hot spots Current Science 75:211–219 Google Scholar
• Radhakrishna BP (2001) The Western Ghats of the Indian peninsula Memoir. Geological Society of India 47:133–144 Google Scholar
• Radhakrishnan C, Gopi KC, Dinesh KP (2007) Zoogeography of Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis Biju and Bossuyt (Amphibia: Anura; Nasikabatrachidae) in the Western Ghats. India Records of the Zoological Survey of India 107:115–121 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ramachandra TV, Alakananda B, Rani A, Khan MA (2011) Ecological and socioeconomic assessment of Varthur wetland, Bengaluru, India. J Environ Sci Eng 53:101–108 CASGoogle Scholar
• Ramachandra TV, Kumar U, Dasgupta A (2016a) Analysis of land surface temperature and rainfall with landscape dynamics in Western Ghats, India. Centre for Ecological Sciences, IISc, Bangalore, India Google Scholar
• Ramachandra TV, Soman D, Naik AD, Chandran MDS (2017) Appraisal of Forest ecosystems goods and services: challenges and opportunities for conservation. J Biodiversity 8:12–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766901.2017.1346160ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ramachandra TV, Vinay S, Aithal BH (2016b) Environmental flow assessment in a lotic ecosystem of Central Western Ghats. India Hydrol Curr Res 7:1–14 Google Scholar
• Ramana P, Patil SK (2008) Marketing of value added products from Artocarpus species in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka my. Forest 44:49–53 Google Scholar
• Ramanan SS (2019) Landscape-level approach necessary to address human-elephant conflicts. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/wildlife-biodiversity/landscape-level-approach-necessary-to-address-human-elephant-conflicts-63242. Accessed 10 September 2020
• Ramesh BR, Menon S, Bawa KS (1997) A vegetation based approach to biodiversity gap analysis in the Agastyamalai region, Western Ghats, India. Ambio 26:529–536 Google Scholar
• Rath S, John R (2018) What factors influence the abundance and distribution of sacred forests in Odisha, a densely forested state in eastern India? Int J Environ Stud 75:1–12 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rath S, Ormsby AA (2020) Conservation through traditional knowledge: a review of research on the sacred groves of Odisha. India Human Ecol 48:455–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-020-00173-1ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ray BC (2002) Tribals of Orissa: the socioeconomic profile. Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi Google Scholar
• Reddy CS, Jha CS, Diwakar PG, Dadhwal VK (2015) Nationwide classification of forest types of India using remote sensing and GIS. Environ Monit Assess 187:777. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4990-8ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Redford KH et al (2003) Mapping the conservation landscape. Conserv Biol 17:116–131 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Reed J, Deakin L, Sunderland T (2015) What are 'Integrated landscape Approaches' and how effectively have they been implemented in the tropics: a systematic map protocol. Environ Evid 4:2. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-4-2ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rishi P (2007) Joint forest management in India: an attitudinal analysis of stakeholders. Resources Conservation and Recycling 51:345–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.10.009ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rist S, Delgado F, Wiesmann U (2003) The role of social learning processes in the emergence and development of Arymara land use systems. Mt Res Dev 23:263–270 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rodgers WA, Panwar HS (1988) Planning a wildlife protected area network in India. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun Google Scholar
• Rodgers WA, Panwar HS, Mathur VB (2002) Wildlife protected area network in India: a review. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun Google Scholar
• Roy Burman BK (1982) Report of committee on Forest and Tribals in India. Tribal development division, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi Google Scholar
• Salick J, Amend A, Anderson D, Hoffmeister K, Gunn B, Zhendong F (2007) Tibetan sacred sites conserve old growth trees and cover in the eastern Himalayas. Biodivers Conserv 16:693–706 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS (1998) Medicinal plants of himalaya: diversity, distribution and potential values. Gyonadaya Prakashan, Nainital Google Scholar
• Sayer J et al (2013) Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:8349–8356 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Sayer JA et al (2017) Measuring the effectiveness of landscape approaches to conservation and development. Sustain Sci 12:465–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-016-0415-zArticleGoogle Scholar
• Scherr SJ, Shames S, Friedman R (2012) From climate-smart agriculture to climate-smart landscapes. Agric Food Secur 1:12 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Senthilkumar N, Prakash S, Rajesh Kannan C, Arun Prasath A, Krishnakumar N (2014) Revisiting forest types of India (Champion and Seth, 1968): a case study on Myristica swamp forest in Kerala international. J Adv Res 2:492–501 Google Scholar
• Shibia MG (2010) Determinants of attitudes and perceptions on resource use and management of Marsabit National Reserve. Kenya J Human Ecol 30:55–62 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Simberloff D (1998) Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: is single-species management passé in the landscape era? Biol Conserv 83:247–257 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Simbo DJ (2010) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Babungo, northwest region, Cameroon. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 6:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-8ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Singh HS (2000) Joint forest management issues of its progress and sustainability. In: International Workshop on JFM on ‘A decade of Joint Forest Management–Retrospection and Introspection’, Dehra Dun. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, pp 192–197 Google Scholar
• Singh M, Kaumanns W (2005) Behavioural studies: a necessity for wildlife management. Curr Sci 89:1233 Google Scholar
• Singh SP (2002) Balancing the approaches of environmental conservation by considering ecosystem services as well as biodiversity. Curr Sci 82:1331–1335 Google Scholar
• Sinha-Roy S (2018) A hybrid multistage model of evolution of the Western Ghats at the passive western continental margin of India. Journal Geological Society of India 92:533–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-1063-yArticleGoogle Scholar
• Smith AM, Sutton SG (2008) The role of a flagship species in the formation of conservation intentions. Hum Dimens Wildl 13:127–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871200701883408ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Smith RJ, Verıssimo D, Leader-Williams N, Cowling RM, Knight AT (2009) Let the locals lead. Nature 462:280–281 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Sreekumar VB, Suganthasakthivel R, Hareesh VS, Sasi R (2013) An approach to landscape level conservation plan in Western Ghats: a case study from Muthikulam high value biodiversity area. In: Western Ghats biogeography, biodiversity & conservation, Malappuram. Department of Botany, NSS College, Manjeri, pp 276–284 Google Scholar
• Storey M, Mahoney JJ, Saunders AD, Duncan RA, Kelley SP, Coffin MF (1995) Timing of hotspot related volcanism and the breakup of Madagascar and India. Science 267:852–855 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Sudha P et al (2006) Forest protection and regeneration under joint forest planning and management in Eastern Plains and Western Ghats of Karnataka. India Int J Environ Sustain Develop 5:70–84 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• TERI (1999) National study of joint forest management. Report submitted to government of India by tata energy research institute (TERI), New Delhi Google Scholar
• Thomas SM, Palmer MW (2007) The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: community ecology and conservation. Community Ecol 8:67–73. https://doi.org/10.1556/ComEc.8.2007.1.9ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Tiwari VM, Padmalal D, Prakash TN (2018) Western Ghats: evolution and environmental issues–an overview. J Geol Soc India 92:515–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-1058-8ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Triguero-Mas M, Olomi-Sola M, Jha N, Zorondo-Rodrigues F, Reyes-Garcia V (2010) Urban and rural perceptions of protected areas: a case study in Dandeli wildlife sanctuary, Western Ghats, India. Environ Conserv 36:208–217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892909990403ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Uprety Y, Asselin H, Dhakal A (2012) Traditional use of medicinal plants in the boreal Forest of Canada: review and perspectives. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 8:7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-7ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Vasudevan K, Kumar A, Chellam R (2001) Structure and composition of rainforest floor amphibian communities in Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Curr Sci 80:406–413 Google Scholar
• Venkatraman AB, Venkatesa KN, Varma S, Sukumar R (2002) Conservation of a flagship species: prioritising Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) conservation units in southern India. Curr Sci 82:1023–1033 Google Scholar
• Villegas-Palacio C, Berrouet L, Connie L, Ruiz A, Upegui A (2016) Lessons from the integrated valuation of ecosystem services in a developing country: three case studies on ecological, socio-cultural and economic valuation. Ecosyst Serv 22:297–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2016.10.017ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Walpole MJ, Leader-Williams N (2002) Tourism and flagship species in conservation. Biodivers Conserv 11:543–547 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Warren MS, Barnett LK, Gibbons DW, Avery MI (1997) Assessing conservation priorities: an improved red list of British butterflies. Biol Conserv 82:317–328 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• White PCL, Gregory KW, Lindley PJ, Richards G (1997) Economic values of threatened mammals in Britain: a case study of the otter Lutra lutra and the water vole Arvicola terrestris. Biol Conserv 82:345–354 ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Widdowson M, Cox KG (1996) Uplift and erosional history of the Deccan traps, India: evidence from laterites and drainage patterns of the Western Ghats and Konkan coast. Earth Planet Sci Lett 137:57–69 ArticleCASGoogle Scholar
• Wright SJ, Muller-Landau HC (2006) The future of tropical forest species. Biotropica 38:287–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00154.xArticleGoogle Scholar
• WWF-India (n.d.) Western ghats. https://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/critical_regions/western_ghats2/western_ghats/. Accessed 09 September 2020
• WWF (n.d.) western ghats, india–a biodiversity hotspot. https://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/western_ghats/. Accessed 08 September 2020
• Xu J et al (2019) Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem Services in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. In: Wester P, Mishra A, Mukherji A, Shrestha AB (eds) The Hindu Kush Himalaya assessment. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_5ChapterGoogle Scholar
• Zhi L, Wenshi P, Xiaojian Z, Dajun W, Hao W (2000) What has the panda taught us. In: Entwistle A, Dunston N (eds) Priorities for the conservation of mammalian diversity: has the panda had its day? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 325–334 Google Scholar

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

1. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Thrissur, Kerala, India Deepu S.
2. Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Geethakumary M. P.
3. Centre for Innovation in Science and Social Action, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Pandurangan A. G.

1. Deepu S.